Introduction

I only recently learned about Harmony Week. As a person of colour and an immigrant to Australia, I have to admit that my journey since arriving hasn’t always been easy. The world often feels increasingly divisive, shaped by ‘us vs. them’ mentalities. Yet, I believe that global connectedness, cultural diversity, and cultural sharing are net benefits to everyone - not just something to be tolerated, but something to be celebrated.

Harmony Week is an annual celebration of cultural diversity and the benefits it brings to Australia. Established as an Australian Government initiative in 1999, it highlights the rich multicultural fabric of the country - where nearly half of the population is either born overseas or has at least one parent from another country.

Here are some more stats provided by the Australian Gov:

This week also coincides with the United Nations International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (IDERD) on March 21, reinforcing the importance of inclusion, respect, and belonging.

This focus on belonging and identity is critical in mental health. I know firsthand how seeking support can be complicated by cultural stigma, language barriers, or difficulty finding a therapist who truly understands one’s experiences.

I believe that diversity strengthens our ability to heal. Therapy should be a safe, affirming space where all identities and backgrounds are honoured.

But how can we ensure that mental health support is truly inclusive? And why does cultural responsiveness in therapy matter so much?

The Impact of Cultural Diversity on Mental Health

Our cultural background shapes how we experience the world - including our mental health. From the way emotions are expressed to the support systems we turn to, culture plays a significant role in how we understand and cope with challenges. However, many individuals from minority backgrounds face unique struggles, such as:

• Stigma around mental health in some cultures, making it harder to seek professional help.
• Lack of culturally competent therapists who understand the nuances of different identities.
• Language barriers that create difficulties in expressing emotions and experiences.
• Experiences of racism, discrimination, or displacement, which can deeply impact mental well-being. More on that here.

Without culturally inclusive therapy, these challenges can lead to isolation and worsening mental health symptoms such as sadness, poor sleep and appetite and social isolation.

The Role of Culturally Responsive Therapy

Culturally responsive therapy goes beyond simply acknowledging diversity - it actively integrates a person’s cultural identity into the therapeutic process. As a therapist, I take a person-centred, trauma-informed, and identity-affirming approach to ensure that clients feel safe and understood. This means:

• Recognising the impact of culture, identity, and lived experiences on mental health.
• Challenging biases and assumptions to create a genuinely inclusive space.
• Using a collaborative approach, where clients are the experts of their own experiences.
• Offering flexibility in therapeutic techniques, adapting to each individual’s background and comfort levels.

For example, someone from a collectivist culture may feel deeply connected to their family and community. Rather than focusing solely on individual coping strategies, therapy could explore ways to strengthen these social supports. Similarly, an LGBTQ+ individual from a conservative background may need a therapist who understands the complexities of navigating their identity in different cultural spaces.

The Power Threat Meaning Framework: A New Way to Understand Trauma

During my trauma training, I came across the Power Threat Meaning Framework (PTMF), and it fundamentally shifted how I think about mental health. Unlike traditional models that focus on diagnosing symptoms, PTMF asks:

🔸 What has happened to you? (Power – the ways in which power has been used against you)
🔸 How did it affect you? (Threat – the difficulties and challenges you’ve faced)
🔸 What sense did you make of it? (Meaning – the beliefs and narratives you’ve formed)
🔸 What did you have to do to survive? (The strategies you developed to cope)

This framework resonated deeply with me because it acknowledges that distress isn’t about what’s ‘wrong’ with a person - it’s about what’s happened to them.

This perspective is especially important when working with people from culturally diverse backgrounds. It creates space for cultural and historical contexts, including migration, displacement, intergenerational trauma, and systemic barriers.

For example, many of my clients struggle with the feeling of ‘not belonging’ after moving countries or growing up between cultures. Instead of pathologising these experiences as ‘anxiety’ or ‘depression,’ PTMF encourages us to see them as valid responses to difficult circumstances. Therapy, then, becomes about reclaiming one’s narrative and finding meaning in their story, rather than fitting into a diagnostic box.

If you’re interested in learning more, I highly recommend Dr. Lucy Johnstone’s blog about introducing this framework to Australia and New Zealand.

Practical Tips for a More Inclusive Approach to Mental Health

If you’re looking for a therapist who values diversity and inclusion, here are some things to consider:

For Clients:

✅ Look for a therapist with experience in culturally responsive care. Check their website or ask directly about their approach to diversity and inclusion.
✅ Seek out support groups or community resources that align with your cultural identity or lived experience.
✅ Don’t be afraid to advocate for yourself in therapy. Your background and experiences matter, and a good therapist will respect, honour, and integrate them into your healing journey.

For Therapists & Mental Health Professionals:

✔ Commit to lifelong learning about different cultural perspectives on mental health. Education is ongoing, not a one-time training.
✔ Recognise and challenge personal biases. Inclusive therapy starts with self-awareness and a willingness to grow.
✔ Create a safe space for all identities by using affirming language, adapting your approach, and being open to feedback from clients about their unique needs.

Conclusion

References

https://www.harmony.gov.au/about

https://www.harmony.gov.au/resources/resources

https://www.madintheuk.com/2022/08/crossing-cultures-with-the-power-threat-meaning-framework-new-zealand/

https://www.madintheuk.com/2022/09/crossing-cultures-with-the-power-threat-meaning-framework-australia-2/

https://www.bps.org.uk/member-networks/division-clinical-psychology/power-threat-meaning-framework

Introduction

For a long time, I didn’t know there was a word or label that described the life I was living as a child. All I knew was that in my family, nothing was permanent. Every couple of years, I’d find myself falling asleep surrounded by boxes, with ‘we’ll miss you’ cards tightly packed away, staring at the ceiling in the dark, thinking about everyone and everything I was leaving behind.

By the time I was 16, I had lived in 11 countries across 3 continents. This may seem shocking to some—an unimaginable amount of upheaval, paired with the privilege of having travelled so much of the world. However, for Adult Third Culture Kids (ATCKs), this narrative is a familiar one.

Like many TCKs, I moved to my passport country (the UK) as a young adult for higher education—a place that, while I had visited regularly and lived in briefly as a child, I knew very little about in terms of daily life without my parents. I became a 19-year-old who spoke perfect, accented, English, and was unable to read a bus timetable—a skill most local children had mastered by the age of 12.

While I can happily say I have now successfully overcome many of those practical obstacles, since then, I have been fascinated by how other Adult Third Culture Kids (ATCKs) experience the world and navigate their mental health. During my counselling training, I dedicated my primary research dissertation to understanding the emotional aspects of the repatriation process and later presented my findings at an international conference.

In this blog, I want to explore the mental health challenges that ATCKs often face, especially during repatriation and adulthood.

Who are Third Culture Kids?

Authors and TCK researchers Pollock and Van Reken (2009) define a Third Culture Kid (TCK) as:

"An individual who, having spent a significant part of their developmental years in a culture other than their parents’ culture, develops a sense of relationship to all of the cultures while not having full ownership in any. Elements from each culture are incorporated into the life experience, but the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar experience."`

This widely accepted definition fits within the Cross-Cultural Framework. However, unlike other cross-cultural models—such as intercountry adoptees, mixed-race children, or children of immigrants—the "third culture" of a TCK is considered a transitory experience rather than a permanent one.

The 'Third Culture' is defined by its temporary, highly mobile nature and is shaped by those living within it. TCKs typically relocate frequently due to their parents' professions, such as missionary work, military service, diplomacy, or engineering. Many attend international schools rather than local ones, forming close bonds with other TCKs who share the experience of constant transition. Even if a TCK spends the majority of their childhood in a single host country, the ever-changing social circle reinforces the sense of living in a "middle" culture—a culture that exists between cultures.

This phenomenon is not static; as global mobility increases, so too does the population of TCKs. In 2019, the United Nations estimated that the number of international migrants worldwide had reached 272 million, or 3.5% of the global population. While this statistic doesn’t differentiate between permanent migrants and those planning to return to their home countries, it highlights the reality of a highly mobile world. In countries like Australia, it's estimated that around 1 million people live and work overseas at any given time, contributing to the expanding population of TCKs and the unique challenges they face.

Understanding Repatriation

Another unique element of the third culture experience is the process of repatriation—returning to one’s passport country, often for education or work opportunities. This transition usually occurs while their parents remain stationed overseas. Repatriation can be one of the most tumultuous periods in an ATCK's life, as reflected in various studies:

My own research highlights that university-aged ATCKs often struggle significantly during repatriation. This transition can be jarring, as ATCKs may look and sound as though they belong, but feel entirely out of place due to limited understanding of local customs, social norms, or cultural references. ATCK’s may have also built up a picture of what finally ‘going home’ might be like which is different to day-to-day realities. This experience of ‘reverse culture shock’ can be very difficult to cope with, as there are limited tailored resources available and it is a very specific experience.

As Bushong found, even after the initial stages of repatriation, many ATCKs feel distant from others, either having not fully assimilated into their passport country or feeling out of sync as they watch their peers settle down, all while being unsure of why they feel different, especially if other aspects of their lives are going ‘well’.

Mental Health Challenges for ATCKs

Growing up as a Third Culture Kid (TCK) is filled with contrasts. It’s widely recognised that being raised among different cultures fosters valuable skills such as cultural sensitivity, multilingualism, and a global outlook. However, for many TCKs, this upbringing also brings challenges, such as difficulties in developing a sense of home, identity, and attachment.

Below are some of the mental health challenges that ATCKs (Adult Third Culture Kids) may face. It’s important to note that each ATCK's experience is unique.

1. Identity Difficulties

ATCKs often grapple with identity confusion, as they don't neatly fit into a single cultural category. In a world that still often demands clear labels, this can create conflict and anxiety, leading to a fragmented sense of self.

Additionally, the TCK model is defined by the experience of living in a "third culture." When that experience is no longer a part of an ATCK’s life, they may struggle to restructure their identity, especially if ‘being a foreigner’ or ‘always moving’ was a core part of who they were.

2. Loss and Grief

Frequent relocations often mean saying goodbye to places, friends, and routines, leading to repeated experiences of loss. Over time, this can accumulate into unresolved grief, which may resurface as anxiety, depression, or difficulty in forming healthy attachments in adult relationships.

As ATCKs grow older and settle in their passport country, they may also feel deep grief for the life they once lived.

3. Isolation and Withdrawal

For many ATCKs, repatriation coincides with their first experience of living away from home, such as attending university. Unlike their peers, who might have family support nearby, ATCKs often have parents stationed overseas. The physical and emotional distance from their primary support system can be challenging, especially since this may be the first time in their lives they’re not surrounded by others with similar experiences. This can lead to feelings of isolation and a tendency to withdraw socially.

4. Attachment and Relationships

ATCKs may struggle with maintaining deep, lasting friendships and relationships due to a history of transient connections. This can foster a fear of intimacy or reluctance to fully invest in relationships, as they may expect them to be temporary.

Pollock and Van Reken (2009) theorised that ATCKs often form friendships and relationships intensely and quickly due to the pattern of limited time with peers growing up. This intensity can cause difficulty or feelings of rejection if others don’t reciprocate the same level of enthusiasm.

5. Chronic Restlessness

The constant state of flux in a TCK’s upbringing can lead to chronic restlessness, making it difficult for ATCKs to commit to long-term plans, jobs, or living situations. They may crave change or feel unsettled when life becomes too routine, which can conflict with the demands of stable employment or financial stability.

6. Reverse Culture Shock

Repatriation often involves a significant adjustment period that can trigger anxiety and stress. Culture shock and confusion are common during this time, and the fear of not fitting in or being misunderstood can exacerbate social anxiety and lead to isolation, and withdrawal. I have previously written about culture shock and how to cope with it, here.

Practical Mental Health Tips for ATCKs

While being an ATCK is a lifelong journey and your relationship with your upbringing is always evolving, here are a few suggestions to help navigate mental health challenges:

1. Connect with Others

Seek out other TCKs online or connect with individuals from international or cross-cultural backgrounds. Finding people who are also experiencing culture shock or who have an "outside" perspective can provide comfort and validation. This sense of belonging can help you feel more grounded in your experiences.

2. Embrace Your Complexity

Instead of viewing your diverse cultural background as a burden, see it as a unique strength and a valuable part of your identity. Engage in creative outlets, such as journaling or storytelling, to help appreciate the richness of your experiences. It’s okay to be different! You can read more about embracing cross-cultural identity in my blog here.

3. Seek Professional Help

Therapy provides a valuable opportunity to explore persistent feelings of anxiety, depression, or restlessness in a safe, non-judgmental environment. A therapist can help you examine how your unique upbringing has shaped your identity and emotional landscape. In my practice, I take a relational approach, where you are the expert of your own story. Together, we will gently explore your emotions, past experiences, and future goals, allowing you to gain deeper insight and clarity.

Conclusion

References

Racism can be more than just discrimination—it can develop into a form of trauma that profoundly impacts mental health. In counselling and psychotherapy, recognising racism as a traumatic experience is essential for providing effective support to those affected.

Recent events, like the riots in the UK fuelled by anti-immigration and Islamophobic rhetoric, highlight the pervasive nature of racism. I was devastated to see such violence and fear in the areas I used to work and live. Even in Australia, where I currently live, a Neo-Nazi group was emboldened by the UK’s unrest and marched through Brisbane a few weeks ago.

This blog explores the impact of racism on mental health, provides a framework for understanding racial trauma, and suggests three key strategies for coping with its effects.

What is Racial Trauma

Racial trauma or Race-Based Traumatic Stress (RBTS) refers to the psychological or emotional harm caused by experiences of racial bias, ethnic discrimination, hate crimes, and systemic oppression. Studies show that racism can cause trauma in ways similar to other types of trauma, like violence or abuse, leading to symptoms similar to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Racial trauma includes both specific incidents and ongoing experiences of living in a racist system, as well as trauma passed down through generations.

Symptoms of racial trauma may include depression, anger, low self-esteem, hypervigilance, and physical reactions such as headaches, sleep problems, and shortness of breath. These symptoms can vary across different racial and ethnic groups. Although racial trauma is not yet recognised as a diagnosable condition by the Diagnostic Statistics Manual 5 (DSM-5), the psychological harm it causes is no less real or painful.

Racism can manifest in various forms and target many aspects of identity, including but not limited to, race, ethnicity, religious beliefs, skin tone, caste and immigration status.

Different Types of Racism and Their Impact

Individual Racism

Individual or interpersonal racism occurs when someone treats another person unfairly due to their race. This can happen in various settings, including at work, school, or online, and may involve colleagues, classmates, strangers, or even friends and family. Racism can be overt and intentional, such as through physical attacks, verbal abuse, or exclusion.

However, it can also be more subtle, known as covert racism or microaggressions, which often stem from unconscious biases. This form of racism occurs when someone unknowingly acts on racial stereotypes, without intending to cause harm. Covert racism is often more challenging to identify and address, especially when it is minimised or denied by others.

Frequent exposure to this type of racism, even on a daily basis, can result in significant stress and adversely affect mental health over time.

Examples:

• Following the COVID-19 outbreak, in the U.S, the ‘Stop Asian and Pacific Islander Hate’ (AAPI) Center reported 1900 hate crimes against Asian Americans, and around 69% of cases were related to verbal harassment, including being called the “Chinese Coronavirus.”  Source.
  
• The Institute for Strategic Dialogue and CASM Technology detected a total of 325,739 antisemitic tweets in English within a six-month period from June 2022 to February 2023. Source.

Institutional Racism

Institutional or systemic racism involves the policies, practices, and structures within society that perpetuate unequal treatment and disadvantages for certain racial or ethnic groups. This form of racism is embedded in the fabric of institutions, such as the criminal justice system, education, healthcare, housing, employment, and politics. It often has roots in historical inequalities like those stemming from colonialism and slavery, which continue to influence modern-day disparities.

For instance, when a person experiences racial bullying at school, it can lead to psychological harm, affecting their academic performance and limiting their future educational and career opportunities. Biases in hiring practices can further marginalise this individual, making it challenging to secure employment or advance in their career, which in turn impacts their financial stability. Financial stress can then negatively affect their health, creating a cycle where poor health limits their work capacity and income potential.

This cycle is often exacerbated by the lack of representation of individuals with lived experiences of racism in leadership positions, which can result in services that do not adequately address the needs of marginalised communities. The interconnected nature of work, education, housing, and health means that systemic racism can trap individuals in a cycle of disadvantage, severely impacting their mental and physical well-being.

Examples:

• In the UK, Black individuals are four times more likely to be detained under the Mental Health Act compared to their white counterparts.
  Source 1 | Source 2
  
  
• In Australia, Indigenous men and women have a life expectancy that is 10.6 and 9.5 years lower, respectively, than that of non-Indigenous Australians. Research highlights racism as a significant factor contributing to the poorer health outcomes of Indigenous communities.
  Source 1 | Source 2

Vicarious Racism

Vicarious racism refers to the indirect experience of racial discrimination, where individuals are impacted by witnessing or learning about the racism faced by others. Initially, this concept was associated with people who were indirectly affected by racial trauma experienced by their family members or peers.

However, the understanding of vicarious racism has evolved, and it is now recognised that anyone who identifies as a member of that group can experience this form of trauma. For example, watching a graphic video of a person that you relate to through race or ethnicity being murdered, may intensely distress you as you could easily imagine it being yourself.

Exposure to acts of racism, whether through personal connections or widely circulated media coverage, can trigger emotional and psychological responses, including anger, sadness, anxiety, and depression. These effects of racism extend beyond the immediate victim to the broader community, amplifying feelings of vulnerability and distress.

Intergenerational Trauma

Intergenerational trauma, also known as generational, transgenerational or historical trauma, is the concept that trauma, particularly racial trauma, can be transmitted through generations within families. This idea was first explored in the descendants of Holocaust survivors, who exhibited elevated levels of anxiety, depression, and stress despite not directly experiencing the traumatic events themselves.

This type of trauma is deeply intertwined with historical and systemic racism, particularly the enduring impacts of colonialism. The legacy of events such as the transatlantic slave trade and Jim Crow laws in the United States, as well as the trauma of the Stolen Generations in Canada and Australia, continues to affect the mental health, social outcomes, and opportunities of descendants. On a psychological level, many descendants of historical injustices have spoken about how difficult it is to come to terms with the horrors that their ancestors endured.

Addressing intergenerational trauma requires a holistic approach that not only acknowledges its personal and familial impacts but also actively challenges the broader systems of inequality and racism that perpetuate these traumas across generations. This involves understanding the historical context, promoting healing within affected communities, and reforming societal structures to foster equity and justice.

Example:

• In Australia, it is estimated at least one-third of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population may experience intergenerational trauma as descendants of the Stolen Generations. The Stolen Generation refers to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children removed from their families through government policies during the mid-1880s up until the 1970s. Source.

Ways to Support Your Mental Health

These strategies are designed to support self-care and help reduce the impact of racism and racial trauma:

1. Acknowledge & Seek Support

Understanding that experiencing racial injustice is not your fault is a crucial first step in coping with its effects. Recognise that you cannot control others' prejudices or discriminatory behaviours. Seeking support from 'safe' individuals or communities—whether in person or online—can provide a valuable space to share your experiences and feelings without fear of judgment. Connecting with others who share key aspects of your identity can foster a sense of belonging and provide mutual support and resources.

Therapy is another avenue for exploring and processing these experiences in a secure, non-judgmental environment. Finding a therapist who shares aspects of your identity, such as race, ethnicity, or gender, or one who is knowledgeable and trained in issues of racial trauma, can be particularly beneficial. Don't hesitate to inquire about a therapist's experience with these topics to ensure they are well-equipped to support you.

2. Rest & Recharge

Resting and recharging are vital practices for managing the mental and emotional toll of racism. Constant exposure to news, social media, or conversations about racial injustice can lead to anxiety, exhaustion, and feelings of helplessness. It's important to recognise when to step back: turn off the news, limit social media use, or mute individuals whose comments are distressing. Taking these breaks is not about avoidance—it's about protecting your mental health and allowing yourself the time and space to process your emotions on your own terms.

Be gentle with yourself and recognise that there will be times when reflecting on your experiences is beneficial and other times when it feels overwhelming. Both reactions are valid. Allow yourself to take mental breaks and rest without guilt, knowing it's okay to step back from the constant demands of processing racial trauma. Treat yourself with the same compassion you would offer a friend, and be patient and understanding, especially during difficult moments.

3. Accept & Celebrate Yourself

Accepting and embracing your identity is a profound act of self-love and resistance against racism. Celebrating your unique culture, heritage, and experiences directly challenges the stereotypes and biases that racism perpetuates. Start by exploring your heritage, including both its positive aspects and its challenges. Learning about your culture's traditions, language, food, and customs can help you take pride in your background.

Engage in daily practices of self-affirmation by acknowledging what you are proud of—your character, skills, and achievements. Reflect on what brings you joy and what you value most, whether it’s activities you enjoy or meaningful relationships. These practices build a positive self-image and help resist internalising harmful racist narratives.

By actively celebrating your identity, you challenge stereotypes, foster self-love, and create a buffer against the negative impacts of racism.

Final Note: Racism is Complex

As discussed in my previous blog, many people today come from diverse cultural and racial backgrounds, adding layers of complexity to their identities and experiences. For those who are mixed race, this can mean navigating racism, colourism, and xenophobia from various groups. Others may face intersecting forms of discrimination across multiple aspects of their identity, including gender, sexuality, or religion.

Resources

Embrace Mental Health
https://embracementalhealth.org.au/
An initiative by Mental Health Australia aiming to supporting the mental health of people from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds, offering culturally and linguistically accessible resources, services, and information.

Racism. It Stops with Me.
https://itstopswithme.humanrights.gov.au/take-action/support-services
A list of support services and National hotlines in Australia that include services tailored to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations, as well as Multicultural services.

Mind UK
https://www.mind.org.uk/information-support/tips-for-everyday-living/racism-and-mental-health/ 
Mind is a national mental health charity in England and Wales, the page above offers further information and resources about mental health and racism.

Intro

I recently read Lisa Nan Joo’s piece about her experience as a transracial adoptee. She described her experience as belonging to a "Liminal Space." As a transracial and intercountry adoptee, and an adult third culture kid (ATCK), this description resonated with me. I don’t feel like I belong to any one culture or nationality, and I’ve always wondered if that was more a result of being an adult third culture kid or an intercountry and transracial adoptee. I imagine it’s both.

The concept of being “in the between,” “the liminal,” and “the not one, nor the other” is a sentiment echoed by many throughout the years—not limited to the groups I inhabit. This includes people of mixed heritage and race, immigrants, asylum seekers, refugees, and many others.

While reflecting on this, I was reminded of my research into third culture kids, which formed the basis of my dissertation. One central concept is the Cross-Cultural Kid model.

The Cross-Cultural Kid Model

While undertaking my research into third culture kids I came across the concept of ‘The Cross-Cultural Kid (CCK) Model’ pioneered by Ruth E. Van Reken, a prominent adult third culture kid and educator. Although her work has focused prominently on TCKs, Van Reken has acknowledged that TCKs are simply a subset of CCKs. CCKs are defined as “a person who is living or has lived in – or meaningfully interacted with – two or more cultural environments for a significant period of time during childhood”.

Van Reken gives the following examples of cross-cultural kids but this is in no way an exhaustive list and is likely to continue to grow.

As you can see, there are many subsets of people who fit the cross-cultural kid model who have had experiences of, or are connected to, more than one culture. This could be through adoption, mixed heritages, migration or more as the illustration above demonstrates.

Sometimes these identities overlap, such as in my case (intercountry, transracial adoptee, and traditional third culture kid) or someone like Barack Obama who is a biracial, bicultural, a TCK and a racial minority within the USA. Another example includes the late Freddie Mercury, lead singer of the rock band Queen, who was born to Parsi-Indian parents in Zanzibar, attended English boarding schools in India, returned to Zanzibar and then fled Zanzibar Revolution with his family to the UK.

How people navigate these cross-cultural identities will be very personal to them and will differ substantially within each sub-group. However, cross-cultural people are united through a shared experience of multiple identities, impacted by culture, race, ethnicity, or migration—and the experience of living in a dominant monoculture where our identities are often challenged or rejected.

Cross-Cultural Challenges

Van Reken recognised that cross-cultural children and adults have a different relationship to culture and identity than those who are monocultured. A limitation of the CCK model is perhaps its large focus on children. While cross-cultural children are significantly impacted by culture in their development, I would argue that adults too can become cross-cultural regardless of their childhoods. For example, many British-born individuals consider themselves Australian after immigrating to Australia as young adults, gaining citizenship, and starting families here.

Realistically, there are no ‘true’ monocultures as the human race has been migrating around the planet since the evolution of the species. However, in most geographic locations, there is a dominant culture which relates to the ethnicity, languages, practices and beliefs of the majority of people residing there.

For many people the dominant culture is intrinsically nationalistic – impacting those who are visually different from the dominant culture. When some people, for example, think that ‘a true Australian’ can only be a white person, this has a very real impact on all people who look different. This can make existing in a country considered ‘home’ unpleasant, facing the ubiquitous question, “But where are you really from?”.

This nationalistic view extends beyond the nation of your passport and into other key personal identities such as religion, ‘a real American is a Christian,’ ‘a real Indian is Hindu’, etc. This non-acceptance of racial differences and the questioning of people’s right to their nationality is what leads to absurdities like the ‘Birther’ conspiracies, where President Barack Obama ultimately chose to release his birth certificate to prove his right to call himself American, and this was still not accepted by many in the country.

The difficulties that cross-cultural people face largely come from their monocultured counterparts. However, this is not unique to any specific monoculture. Cross-cultural people face these difficulties in any monoculture regardless of the race, ethnicity, or geographic location of that monoculture.

For instance, it is not uncommon for some transracial adoptees to be treated as an outsider not just in their adopted culture but also in their birth or ethnic culture, largely due to language barriers, cultural ignorance or lack of shared experiences and knowledge.

What can we do?

I believe there is great value in working with the cross-cultural model, even outside of TCK research where it is predominantly used. While each sub-group has its own unique experiences and issues, it is valuable to be united by our shared ‘outsider’ experience and reject the need to conform to any labels or identities that don’t fit, reflect, or serve us - particularly those imposed upon us by the monoculture.

Van Reken writes:

“Perhaps one of the greatest gifts to give a CCK is to acknowledge the reality that this world of multiple cultures they have experienced as children is a valid place of belonging, even if not rooted in one geographical place or ethnicity.”

As a cross-cultural person, I find myself feeling more and more confident in expressing my identity. Sometimes I say, “I’m adopted from Nepal, but I grew up overseas.” Sometimes I identify as a British Nepalese adoptee or just British, or Nepalese. I am all of these, all at once, and most people don’t need to know my family or life history upon meeting, and I am not obligated to tell them.

What we say, as cross-cultural people needs to be accepted by the wider population.

I used to feel a lot of pressure, both external and internal, to choose a side, or erase another. To fit myself more into the British ‘box’, to distance myself from my Nepalese heritage. To struggle through trying to be ‘more-British’ or to deny my ethnic heritage completely. I also know that one day, my answer to “Where are you from?” might still change and that’s okay too.

While I understand how unique personal identity is. On my own personal journey, freeing myself from a monocultured paradigm took a lot of weight of my shoulders.

The dominant group often ignores the concept of culture completely, as it is the norm in the country they reside. In many ways, they often do not realise they live within a culture; it is just considered ‘normal’ or ‘the way things are’. However, as I’ve written about before, anyone entering this new country might find themselves suddenly struggling with culture shock, feeling alienated by those around them and finding this affecting their mental health.

This affects adults as well as children. It can be incredibly difficult for someone who grew up as part of the dominant monoculture to suddenly find themselves in the position of an outsider in a new culture. They may experience a sense of aloneness that they have never before had to process.

While operating from a cross-cultural perspective will not solve the problems of culture shock or other difficult realities that cross-cultural people often face in terms of rejection and non-acceptance, I do propose it is ultimately a more inclusive model to work from.

For example, in this visual below when we ask someone "Where are you from?".

Visual: Dominant Monocultured Perspective vs. Cross-Cultural Perspective

On the left-hand side, the dominant monoculture perspective may be that people from a certain place should only say they are from there if they have a passport from there/are citizens of the country—and, for some people, ideally also match the racial make-up of the majority population of the country.

On the right-hand side, the cross-cultural perspective allows people to define where they are from through multiple avenues, including ethnic origin, racial identity, passport country, citizenship, migration, travel, and more. It takes into account that where someone is from is often more than a tick-box exercise; rather, it can be nuanced and complex.

To Conclude

As global immigration continues to increase, cross-cultural populations are growing and becoming more and more common.

Recently, in a Facebook post thread, I read how important it was that a mixed-race and mixed-ethnic family taught their children that they are not ‘half of anything’ but ‘both’.  Small changes like this can positively impact people’s self-concept. Conversely, asking someone “where they’re really from” to find out their ethnic heritage can negatively impact someone’s view of themselves, suggesting that where they identify as being from is somehow wrong.

I hope that this concept may be helpful to others to - both people from cross-cultural backgrounds and the people who interact with them, be it friends, family members or professionals.

References